Business Ethic and Corporate Social Responsibility Essay

Business Ethic and Corporate Social Responsibility - Essay Example Oil is a major contributor to greenhouse gases which results in climate change. The company is on a drive to become more socially responsible by not only reducing its carbon footprints but by improving the safety of its work environment and is employees. In so doing it seeks to reduce the number of accidents and fatalities as well as the number of oil spills, blowouts and flarings at its operations globally. Shell has faced a lot of criticisms from the communities in which it operates and non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) that are concerned about the companies safety practices, the environment and human rights. The company is currently working with communities, its partners and NGO’s in order to deal with potential impacts and also to share the benefits that derive from operations and projects. Shell’s Display of its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) According to the company’s CEO Vosser (2010, qtd. in Shell 2010), strong principles as well as the development of trust are fundamental to shells approach and the respect for human rights is deeply entrenched in the company’s General Business Principles which it proudly boasts as having being developed since 1976. Vosser (2010, qtd in Shell 2010) also reveals that the company has adopted transparency as a way of dealing with some of its problems at its operations in Nigeria which has been plagued by operational spills, spills arising from sabotage and spills arising from the theft of fuel. This allows it to keep track of spills in order to determine the main cause. With respect to safety, the company has signed up with the UN Global Compact LEAD which seeks to reinforce commitment by businesses to the principles of Global Compact. Shell has been a member of this group since 2000. The company’s safety measures has been heightened as a result of the BP Deepwater Ho rizon incident in the Gulf of Mexico which dominated the news all over the world in 2010 and the oil spill that resulted. Shell believes that it has the necessary skills and technical expertise to avert such a situation in its operations based on its stringent operating standards which it applies globally. This is a demonstration of its ability to operate in a socially responsible manner despite the diversity of challenges the company faces. Shell’s goal is zero fatality and zero accidents (Shell 2010). In terms of safety in its deepwater operations the company ensures that the persons employed in this area of its operations are properly trained and are competent to handle the requirements of the job. Shell’s focus on the environment lies in some key areas, including CO2, flaring, spills, and the company’s use of water. The company has invested in technology that will lead to more energy efficient refineries and chemical plants. To this end the company has devel oped carbon capture and storage technology to effectively reduce carbon emissions. The company is working assiduously to reduce gas flarings in Nigeria; one of its locations in which it seeks to tackle environmental problems head on. In order to assist in the improvement of standards and practices that may lead to environmental sustainability the company is working with some leading environmental organisations in the quest to adhere to proper environmental management of the energy sector. In addition to providing jobs and training for its employees, Shell also shares the benefits of its operations with the communities in which it operates by providing contracts for goods and services and by

Molecular basis of aging in relation to fertility Essay

Molecular basis of aging in relation to fertility - Essay Example Aging is defined as â€Å"a progressive, time-dependent deterioration of an organism’s capacity to respond to environmental changes, which ultimately makes it susceptible to death† (Allen and Balin 4). It is a widely-accepted idea that aging is a natural process that occurs in all living organisms. Since the process of aging most likely would be affecting an organism’s overall body functions, it would also greatly affect its capacity to reproduce, eventually leading to a decrease or the loss of fertility of the said organism (Liu and Case 1169). At present, there are numerous links between chromosomal and DNA damage not just to the aging process of an organism but also on fertility. A female’s capacity to conceive and give birth, or a male’s capability to contribute in conceiving a child is called fertility (Masoro 161). In order to proliferate the species well into numerous and succeeding generations, organisms must be able to produce as much offsp ring as possible that are able to adapt to the current environment that they live on. For that to happen, the process called natural selection takes place (Torday and Rehan 12). Also, the energy that flows within the organism is appropriated in such a way that during the process of reproduction, most of the energy from the consumption of food is distributed to the body’s reproductive systems, mostly to the rapidly-dividing cells called the gametes. However, once the organism starts the process of aging, the energy being exerted for reproduction is reduced and more focus is given to the maintenance of the organism’s body, especially when there is the presence of a rapid breakdown of cells as well as the decline of cell-to-cell communication within the systems and organs (13). Not only is the production of cells affected by aging, but also the process of DNA replication and repair as well. Due to the proliferation of damaged DNA especially in the sex cells of the organis m, it would eventually contribute to the creation of deformed or dysfunctional oocytes or spermatozoa that would eventually be the cause of the loss of reproductive capability or infertility among aging organisms (Sikka 78). Among pregnant women, the imbalance of antioxidants and pro-oxidants may result to oxidative stress due to reactive oxygen species (ROS), which could affect DNA production when in excess, or affect cell-signaling pathways when deficient (Dupont, Cordier and Junien 25). Also, due to the age-associated decline of female fertility can be attributed to the abnormalities found in the oocytes themselves. Due to the abnormalities in the folding of the DNA and eventually, the abnormalities in the alignment of the chromosomes during meiosis and diakinesis which can be attributed to the mutations in the microtubules, preimplantation of embryos or aneuploidy in the fertilized egg may cause spontaneous abortions among older pregnant females (The Practice Committee of the Am erican Society for Reproductive Medicine (PCASRM) 248). Male fertility is also greatly affected by ROS, wherein the spermatozoa membranes would be highly-susceptible to oxygen damage due to the peroxidation of lipid membranes, damaging the sperm and rendering them incapable of fertilizing the ovum (Sikka 78). Also, the presence of errors in the DNA called nicks could also contribute to male infertility due to loosely-packed DNA and chromatin disorganization (Sakkas, Urner and Bizzaro 11). These nicks may be attributed to age-induced DNA

Human Immunodeficiency Virus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Human Immunodeficiency Virus - Essay Example Heterosexual infection remains the primary route of transmission for the virus in the country. HIV is rapidly transforming itself into a different disease which means that innovative and creative strategies need to be formulated for achieving optimum results. Information exchange and accessibility is another strategy that can lead to superior outcomes. A preventive strategy needs to be modified so that poor and marginalized communities have access to resources. The NHS should strive to develop a coordinated database that can be shared by private health organizations and voluntary organizations. This can be used to ensure that superior treatments are available for patients belonging to vulnerable and susceptible risk groups. The United Kingdom has an advanced and well-developed health system. Public health indicators have been improving due to the advent of technology and rapid interventions. However considerable problems continue to exert a strain on the health system. HIV is considered to be a major problem in the United Kingdom due to a number of reasons. It can inflict a heavy toll on individuals in terms of financial, emotional, and psychological problems (Hough, 2003: Pg 644). It can lead to high levels of anxiety, stress, depression, and frustration among individuals. Further many individuals hesitate to disclose HIV due to the social stigmas associated with it. Empirical studies have documented that heterosexuals and homosexuals comprise the leading risk group for HIV. Minorities are vulnerable to the disease due to the lack of effective and efficient procedures (Flowers & Duncan, 2003: Pg 179). The lack of information means that many individuals forego preventive treatment in order to reduce co sts. This can be deleterious for the NHS that seeks to maintain an integrated and coordinated program for HIV management and prevention. The NHS needs to formulate an efficient and effective system that can be used to attain excellence. A comprehensive strategy should focus on HIV prevention and patient empowerment. Further there is the need to deploy efficient and effective strategies that can be used to attain excellence in combating the disease. This research paper will seek to analyze the issue of HIV as a major public issue in the United Kingdom. It will formulate a smart strategy that can be used to enhance the process of HIV detection, prevention, and management. Background HIV is a condition that can be debilitating and incapacitating for many individuals. It leads the weakening of the immunological system. It can lead to fatal outcomes if not properly treated. HIV can be transmitted through various means. Sexual intercourse is the main cause of the transfer of the disease (Lee, 2003: Pg 2201). Contaminated blood and needles can also lead to infection of individuals with HIV. Finally children who are born from HIV infected mothers are likely to be diagnosed with the disease. HIV has become a major public issue in the United Kingdom. This is due to the fact that it can cause significant health problems in the population (UNAIDS, 2000: pg 23). It can lead to negative outcomes that must be tackled in a systematic and logical manner. The United Kingdom has a comprehensive system for tackling HIV. It has developed a robust program for surveillance and management of

Business Loans at Samba Bank Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Loans at Samba Bank - Research Paper Example They have assisted these individuals with the finances and the loan schemes which were more refining than any other Saudi Bank. Being the first private Saudi Bank, they managed to build a strong customer relationship and is known as one of the most trusted confidants of the elite’s wealth in Saudia. Their banking relationship consists of the relationship manger, a personal advisor and understands and advises the individuals in the protection and the growth of the portfolio of the assets. They have some award winning investment and wealth management experts who are working closely with the relationship manager and are known to every minute detail of the account. However they are confidential and trusted advisors, who provide the award winning services to their clients. SambaDiamond, Samba Gold, Ladies Banking, Alkhair Personal Loan, Alkhair Home Loan are some of the many finance and loans opportunities provided by Samba Bank at a personal level. Due to the high success rate and reasonable interest rates where the turnover of the bank is also very high. Due to its long history with high success and confidentiality rate, Samba Bank saw a lot of investors trusting Samba with their money. This is the reason primarily why Samba was shortlisted in the Top Ten Safest Banks of the Middle east and ranked at number four. â€Å"The top ten world’s safest banks 2011 in the Middle East list includes National Bank of Abu Dhabi at the top ladder followed by the National Bank of Kuwait, Qatar National Bank, Samba Financial Group (Saudi Arabia), National Commercial Bank (Saudi Arabia), tie for ranking number six between Al-Rajhi Bank (Saudi Arabia), Riyad Bank (Saudi Arabia), Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, Kuwait Finance House and Saudi British Bank (Saudi Arabia).† (Saudi Arabia hosts 5 out of 10 safest banks in ME - Arab News ) Keeping in mind the trust and high turnover rate generated by Samba Bank in the personal banking, it introduced the loans schemes in t he corporate sector as well which turned out to be equally successful. It is one of the largest providers of Corporate Banking financial products and strives to set a competitive edge which will help it get differentiated from the competitors. Thanks to the differentiated financial banking and the advisory services, Samba Bank has been able to build a very strong relationship with the government; public, private sectors. The primary focus of the bank is to empower the business owners to pay more attention to their business rather than the bank. Hence, Samba has introduced a number of loans and finances schemes on a commercial level which helps in the achievement of the critical success. It extends a helping hand to those businesses especially which have the potential but not the resources to grow and expand. Therefore, several options like working capital and long/short term loans fulfil the financing needs of the business owners. Some of the loans which are provided by Samba Bank i nclude: Working Capital Loans. Contract & Project Financing. Investment Loans. Islamic Financing Products. For the convenience of the business owners, there is the online corporate banking facility provided by the Bank so that they can access their account information online as well as view, download or print the information of their accounts as per the requirements. There are ecertain products provided as well as the financing schemes which have been designed with the requirement of the Islamic Banking. These products as well as services have been established

Demerits of Advertising Essay Example for Free

Demerits of Advertising Essay Advertising is a form of communication used to encourage or persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners) to continue or take some new action. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text messagesModern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Type Demerits1 Demerits of Advertising (Objections) Various objections against it may be listed as follows: 1. Economic Objections a) Advertising is not productive. It is true that it does not produce any tangible goods. It is said to involve wasteful expenditure. b) It forces people to desire and buy goods, which, in fact, are not within their means.  c) It increases the cost of goods. Advertising charges are included in the price, which the consumer has to pay. d) Advertising results in monopoly. The consumer becomes a slave to a particular brand. 2. Social Objections a) Most of the advertisements contain tall claims and the consumers do not enjoy the benefits advertisement in full. They are shortlived only. b) The press is influenced by the advertisers because they provide major revenue for the existence of newspapers. 3. Ethical Objections a) Advertising appeals make people to use such articles, which may affect their health. For example alcoholic drinks and cigarettes. b) People with less purchasing power cannot afford to buy articles even though advertisements create a strong need in them. Thus a section of society remains discontented. Whatever may be said against advertising, it is increasingly used almost in every branch of business to promote sales. It is not merely a means of sales promotion but today it has become a science equivalent to any other social science. Type Demerits 2 These are the disadvantages of advertising: Increases the cost: It increases the cost of goods. The cost of the advertisement is included in the price and is ultimately borne by the customers. Misleads the public: It misleads the public by giving false statements about the product. (It may be true in some cases but majority of advertisers know the value of honest statements.) Creates a dissatisfaction: It creates tastes and desires for some people whose income may not allow them to buy. Such people feel dissatisfied. Creates a monopoly: It increases monopolistic trend. Due to advertisement some manufacturers create monopoly in industry and thus reduce healthy competition. It becomes difficult for new firms to enter the field. Creates the confusion: It creates the possibility of wrong purchases. Being impressed by the advertisement, in some cases, a person is not able to purchase the commodity, which he actually wants to purchase. Encourages luxury: This encourages luxury. Mostly the commodities related to comforts and luxuries are advertised, for example, cigarettes, cosmetic goods and etc. due to advertisement of cigarettes several persons start smoking cigarettes, which becomes habit. Reduces cleanliness: It reduces cleanliness. Large number of posters and writings on the walls are used for advertisement. This makes the roads and the walls of the houses look dirty. Thus, it reduces the natural beauty. Causes wastage: It is a cause of wastage of natural resources. As a results of advertisement, style and fashion change quickly. It makes the goods out of fashion.

Sociological Imagination Essay Example for Free

Sociological Imagination Essay The blackboard website will be unavailable between 7PM to midnight on June 29th for maintenance, so please make sure you upload it before 7 PM. Do not wait till last minute. Late assignments will result point deduction or even a zero essay grade. Format: Please submit an electronic word file named â€Å"your full name essay 1†, such as â€Å"JohnSmithessay1†, through blackboard on time. This essay should be 3-4 pages in total, double spaced, 11 point font. Do not directly copy and paste your assignment on blackboard! Choose to attach your assignment word file. Late assignments are not going to be accepted. The sociological imagination enables individuals to see the intimate relationship between the events of history as they occur in human societies and the events of an individuals or familys biography. wrote C. Wright Mills. In this assignment, you are to write up an Essay explaining the connections between your family biography and historical events over the past 50 years. Choose one family members of yours to focus on, such as your grandparents, you parents, your brothers and sisters, or you. Reflect on his or her life and think about how his/her life trajectory is intertwined with the historical changes in the country that you are from. The purpose of this assignment is to for you to apply the sociological imagination to analyze the profound influence that historical and societal contexts have on lives of individuals. Please make sure that you fulfill the following requirements: Clearly state what the personal events are. Explain how these personal events in your family are related to or affected by some of the historical events you listed. Explain in your own words what the sociological imagination is and whether/how it has helped you to better understand the life experiences of your family members. You can refer to the first assigned reading to answer these questions. Before you start your essay, you can do the following exercise on a piece of paper. Please do not include the time line drawing in your essay! It is just used for you to better conceptualize your essay. Draw a time line that begins in the 1960 and ends at the 2013. Above the line you are to identify in chronological order three significant events and/or transitions in the life of you or your family members (such events or transitions are like births, graduations, marriages, divorces, employment changes, income changes, geographic mobility, employment changes, or other changes you can think of). Next, think about the historical and social contexts underlying this particular individual’s life trajectory. What historical or societal events have affected his/her path or life? What historical or societal factors have influenced the important decisions he/she made in his/her life? Below the line identify in chronological order some of these important historical events. Write down the historical events and the time period it occurred or lasted. Such events in the United States include, are not limited to, World War II, the Cold War, the Korean War, the Civil Rights and Womens movements, the Vietnam War, the recession of the 1980s, and etc. Please do not be limited by the events I list here. You are free to choose some historical events that are less well known (such as the development of colon technology, tea party movement and etc.) but you think are influential in your life or the life of the family member that you chose. After you have decided which family member and life events to focus on, write an essay on the relationships between these personal events and some the important historical events in your country. Please note: I am not asking you to write what you or your family were thinking or doing on the day of 911 or the inauguration day of president Obama. You are supposed to write about how these historical events substantially shaped the life trajectory of the particular individual you chose. Your essay will be graded based on how well you answered each question and the overall quality of your assignment. I strongly recommend you read the grading rubric in the appendix carefully before you start. Please organize your thoughts and arguments, present them in a logical manner and explain them in detail. Please proof read papers for typographical and grammatical errors. Appendix 1: excerpts of other students assignments as example The following are some examples from other students assignments. Please learn from them how to apply the sociological perspective to your own life events but do not be constrained by them. (1) During World War II my family underwent some great changes. My grandmother took a second job, working in the woolen mills making army blankets. My grandfather joined the marines and moved his whole family from Ohio to California It was during this time that my grandparents divorced. Divorces are higher during any period of dramatic economic change. Although Im sure my grandparents blamed themselves, their divorce was a product of the economy and society. The same theory holds true for my parents. When they divorced, they blamed themselves, wondering what each had done wrong, as I did. When I look at what was happening in the economy, the similarities [with my grandparents] are easy to see. The nation- wide divorce rate was up dramatically and the economy was beginning to take a terrible turn for the worse. (2)When people ask me why I enrolled in college a year ago, I usually answered that I enrolled because I wanted to. I realize now that my answer cannot be quite that simple. Because my family doctor believed that the pill was finally proven safe in 1963, I was able to plan my family. In doing so, my son and daughter are nearly raised and I am still young enough to pursue a second career. More than any other factor, though, the womens movement probably was the greatest influence on my decision. The successes of the movement in social equality have given me the necessary courage and confidence to attempt to be more than a mere shadow of my husbands social position. Appendix 2: grading rubric Sociological Understanding (40%) The essay should apply key sociological concepts, ideas, theories learned in class correctly and properly to analyze related topics. Assertions in the essay must be supported by evidence (from texts or from data) that is logically related to the thesis. Coverage (30%) The essay must be clearly based on readings and topics related to the course. Essays that are simple summaries of sources are adequate, but will not get the highest grades. The essay should answer all the required questions in the essay guideline. If you fail to answer any questions, some points will be deducted. However, you should organize the essay in a way that it flows smoothly. Do not just list your answers to each question. Originality (10%) The essay should be original. Originality does not mean that you must be the first to think or write something, but that you take different sources and write about them using your point of view. Originality is entailed in taking your sources and forging them into an essay in your voice. Summarizing sources will be adequate, but not very original. Papers written by you and previously submitted to other courses are not original for this course. Such recycled papers will get a failing grade. Copying directly from internet without citing properly is considered plagiarism and will result in a failing grade. What is plagiarism? Writing Quality (10%) Words and constructions should be chosen with care. Statements should be direct and clear.w The essay should contain no errors of sentence structure, spelling, word choice, or punctuation. If you have difficulty writing or English is your second language you should tell me at the beginning of the semester. Im not a writing teacher, but I will do what I can to help you become a better writer. You should also seek help at the Writing Center. Every paper must have a title and the authors name, either at the top of the first page or on a separate title page. All citations and references must be in ASA, APA or MLA format. The general tone of the essay should be academic and professional. Good writing often sounds like well-organized thoughtful conversation. I do not want you to imitate the turgid academic writing found in some sociology journals. I want you to write with a level of sophistication appropriate for well-educated college students.

The relationship between double dissociations and cognitive processes

The relationship between double dissociations and cognitive processes A relationship implies the way things interconnect and includes ways these groups regard and behave towards one another. Double Dissociations (DDs), modularity and connectionist modeling (CM) will be introduced. Discussions about their strengths and weaknesses, how advances in technology have added value to existing data and possible theoretical models will follow. Research community opinions will be explored as these factors impact the extent to which these processes uphold one another. Prior to 1960 the brain was primarily understood in terms of behaviorism where human behavior was thought of in actions of stimuli and response rather than through structure and organizational process (Cohen, 2000). Computer technology and cognitive psychology seemed to be a natural match as cognitive psychologists frequently used computers for analogies to explain the human brain. Armed with philosophies concerning modularity scientists started to explore ways in which computer technology could model actions of the human brain (Parkin, 1997). Cognitive neuropsychology leans on the theoretical framework provided by cognitive psychologists and detailed observation of brain behaviors and is noted for comparing differences between how an intact system works and what happens when it becomes damaged. Parkin (1997) shares an example of the difference between determining function for individual modules of an intact television set. He points out that observing modular failures in the set may be more informative than separating out the multiple components and how they contribute to media transmission. Even if one is ignorant of the workings of a television, by observing consistent mechanical failures it can be noted that it is possible for a television to lose sound and retain a picture or to retain the picture and lose the sound. By this it could be assumed that the components are independent of one another. The same principles can be applied to mechanical failure in a car or in the human brain where these observations can be foun d in the form of Double Dissociation (DDs) (Parkin, 1997). Dissociation is the process of identifying the neural substrate of a specific area of brain function. DD was a term originally used in statistics where 2 independent variables (IV) have different effects on two dependent variables (DV) where one IV affects DV1 but not DV2 and the second IV affects DV2 but not DV1 (Tauber,1955). In neuropsychology 2 independent brain areas are functionally dissociated by 2 cognitive tests. DDs are seen as the result of traumatic damage, disease or congenital deformities and offer a window into processes that normally operate in symbiotic ways such as the ability to understand and communicate with language (Parkin, 1997). DDs are sometimes criticised as reductionist however they can be vital signposts for estimating functional perimeters. DDs are useful for showing what happens when functional impairment occurs in one area of the brain leaving another area intact, while in other individuals the opposite functional pattern emerges (Shallice, 1988). It is challenging to find DDs where there are no mitigating factors or co-morbid conditions and some researchers recommend a classification system to rate DD extent and quality (Shallice, 1988; Parkin, 1997). DF is an individual with a single dissociation. She sustained Visual Form Agnosia when her ventral stream, the area responsible for the conscious identification of visual objects became impaired. Visual areas in the dorsal stream needed to identify color and texture remained intact so she could identify fruits and vegetables but was unable to identify a card, even though she was able to push it through a slot. She could draw on long term memory to draw objects but later when asked to identify them could not (Milner and Goodale cited in Datta, 2004). D.B. another person was found to have unconscious/covert visual function, allowing her to do better than chance on forced choice experiments which tests knowledge of areas she claimed not to see (Stoerig Cowey, 1992). DDs are noted in the contrast between deep dyslexia and surface dyslexia. The term dyslexia describes disorders of language concerning reading and spelling and can be acquired as the result of trauma or can be present at birth).Deep dyslexics have semantic, visual and reading errors (Plaut Shallice, 1993), they fail to name pseudo words but can name some exception words indicating the non lexical or visual route remains impaired but the phonological/lexical route was intact. Surface dyslexics can accurately name the pseudo words but demonstrate difficulty when pronouncing exception words such as pint which they pronounce as though it rhymed with lint. This indicates the non lexical/ visual route is intact but the lexical/phonological is impaired (Naish, 2000). Connectionist modeling (CM) is the process of using the computer to model various components of brain function so the patterns of how they work together can be observed. CMs, like the brain are layered for sequential tasks. The influence of the neuron is based on the strength of its connection and learning or recognition is achieved by altering the strengths of connections between learning. In models this is accomplished by assigning weights and connections that are determined by predetermined rules (McLeod, Plunkett Rolls, 1998) Modeling relies on gaining understanding of cognition through rule-guided transformation of mental representations. Hinton Shallice (1991) designed a connectionist model and used this to replicate co-occurrences of semantic and visual errors. After training the model to map from orthography to semantics it was lesioned. Three common network properties were identified to reproduce deep dyslexia, distributed orthographic/ semantic representations, gradient descent learning and attractors for word meanings. A fourth factor proved valuable which consisted of increasing the ratio of concrete to abstract semantics. The network replication proved useful for studying deep dyslexic patterns however may not be an accurate representation of how the brain learns (Plaut Shallice, 1993). DD and connectionist modelling have worked together to explore prosopagnosia, (face blindness). Face recognition has been traced to the fusiform area of the brain and because it is domain specific and information encapsulated there are characteristic of modularity present (Carlson, 2007). In Prosopagnasia it is common for face perception to show impairment, while object recognition remains intact (Cohen, 2000). Within prosopagnosia some people retain covert recognition without overt recognition. (De Haan, Young, Newcombe, 1987) explored this, utilizing behavioural techniques with PH, who sustained trauma related prosopagnosia. PH was only able to recognize two out of multiple faces he was tested on, moreover he was unable to discern famous from common faces above the level of chance, yet he retained the ability for covert recognition which was identified by the use of galvanic skin response testing and forced word choice testing where he did better than would be possible by chance. CM to study prosopagnosia was adapted to investigate whether recognition was sequential and temporally driven and how the information was linked to determine comprehension. (Cohen et al, 2000). It was found significance in the first process is unnecessary for successful execution of the adjacent process and this observation was later strengthened by FMRI findings (Cohen et al, 2000). Adjustments to face recognition CM were the result of what was already known through DDs about overt and covert recognition. The model allowed repetition of the patterns and the ability to alter parameters to resolve questions about timing versus modular involvement. Hidden layers in the network work to average error across the network and the covert learning is seen in the model. It learns by minimizing error to produce responses for information not directly inputted to the model (Cohen, Johnston Plunkett, 2000) LaVoi Naish, (2009) urge that the simplicity of available cognitive models cant mirror the complexity of the human brain and that at best the networks are useful for modeling small tasks. Cognitive neuroscience was originally dominated by case studies, cognitive modelling in the form of neural networks and carefully developed neuropsychological testing tools. DDs were critical tools for discovery (Parkin, 1997). Modularity was observed through behaviour and confirmed at post mortem or through animal studies. Technology lacked capacity to ethically observe structural brain changes in living participants. The brain was dissected and stained after dearth so changes could be observed. Differences in function were more readily seen by brains that were damaged (Parkin, 1997). DDs provided and continue to contribute valuable information in living patients and in lesioned laboratory animals. Brain impairments can also be explored and charted through case studies of cognitive dysfunction in humans and animals. There is considerable research done with animal models due to ethical and financial constraints. One added advantage of animal studies is that multiple generations can be studied in fewer years than it takes a human to reach maturity (Carlson, 2007). Recently Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) technology has been used to approximate a lesioned condition however TMS is temporary and fails to show results of long-term impairments. Hubel and Wiesel used kittens to demonstrate extended light deprivation during critical periods in development can cause permanent visual impairment. When light was restricted to one eye, the seeing eye took over function; however the kittens failed to develop binocular vision. Research delivered insight for ocular dominance and childhood cataracts (Goldstein, 2001). They contributed to visual neurophysiology by demonstrating how signals from the eye are processed by the brain where they generate detection of motion, edges, color and depth perception (Carlson, 2007). The research supports cortical plasticity studies by revealing plasticity can be developmentally triggered as well as domain specific. Similar activity occurs in hearing and motor domains (Ramachandran, Altschuler, 2009). The brain is dynamic and adapts in impairment which has implications for modularity assumptions and consequent rehabilitation (Purves, 2008). A 1949 manuscript cited by Scoville and Milner (1957) reveals findings of significant memory loss in two patients with medial temporal lobe surgery (MTLS including the hippocampus. In 1957 Scoville and Milner warned other surgeons not to overlook the role of the hippocampus which brings us to the study of HM. HM was one of Scovilles patients in 1953 and a victim of MTLS. HMs difficulty began with a bike accident at age seven, initially recovery seemed normal but three years later HM sustained intractable seizures. At age 27, HM underwent experimental surgery in hope of limiting seizure activity. The bilateral medial temporal lobe MTLS reduced seizure activity but also impaired HMs ability to learn new information, mental processing speed, and episodic explicit memory, resulted in language impairment and erased long term memory (Scoville and Milner, 1957; Corkin, 1984; Sagar et al., 1985). He remained a case study from age seven until after his death at age eighty three. Ironically one of the few individuals he continued to recognize was Dr. Scoville who remained involved with his care until his death. There is no evidence of Scoville blaming others or shirking responsibility for his surgical actions. After HMs death at his request and with the guidance of his guardian, HMs brain was donated to science to help others. HMs brain was dissected and the procedure broadcast online (Science Blogs, 2009) HMs cognitive impairments spanned memory, visual, and language domains providing a long term picture of how network involvement and developmental changes may follow the removal of domain specific anatomy. These impairments were more clearly defined by recent advances in imaging technology such as high definition functional magnetic resonance imaging available in HMs later years however some of the impairments may have been present from the onset of his epilepsy. Deficits on tests of executive functions and hippocampal involvement are common unusual in epilepsy patients, pre and post surgery. They can be prone to perseveration as well as language and motor skill impairments (Hermann et al., 1988; Horner et al., 1996; Martin et al., 2000; Trenerry and Jack, 1994). H.M.s neurological examination in 2005 reveals his medications still included prescribed anti seizure medications, Tegretol, Paxil, and Tegretol-X. Additionally in 2002-4 when HMs brain was re-scanned extensive white matter damage and corpus callosum fiber and cortical thinning beyond that considered normal for his age group was discovered in addition to the original damage from the resection. This may indicate modular damage can impair the networks and other modules that interface with it. Initially there was resistance in the medical community to naming the hippocampus as the seat of memory because animal models did not demonstrate the same degree of disruption as HM (Barr, Goldberg, 2003). This cultural mindset and lack of information may have been a factor in Scovilles failure to recognize the earlier warning signs about memory retention and hippocampal involvement. The hippocampus was gradually accepted by the medical community as a structure having domain specific function that was critical to information encapsulation. More recently it has been noted that memory may have significant network features mediated by paths in the frontal lobes rather than an exclusively domain specific module (Barr, Goldberg, 2003). Case studies such as HM (Henry Molaison) are valuable to cognitive neuroscience as they can show the transition of theory over time and how views on what constitute modularity are subject to change. There are similar findings where severe childhood brain injury led to widespread long term negative effects on white matter architecture and restricted the potential for brain growth. Damage patterns in the hippocampus indicate the white matter injury may come from the lesions restricting long term cerebral blood flow (Tasker, 2006). Neural network architecture could possibly model patterns of learning but would lack the capacity to predict developmental cascades in organic brain matter (Shallice, 1988). Scientists such as Broca who identified the segment of brain mainly responsible for language understanding and Wernicke who found areas relative to speech production are examples of how DDs increase understanding of localist function. Broca and Wernicke both researched aphasia post-mortem at the same time period in history and compared cases (Purves, 2008). Wernicke identified the area of the brain responsible for language comprehension and named it Wernickes area. Carl Wernicke was the scientist who discerned there was a regional difference between patients with aphasia dividing those with expressive aphasia (produce language) and those who sustained receptive aphasia (understand language) Wernicke located impaired language patients whose left frontal lobe was intact. These patients experienced language impairments in the area of comprehension and even though their speech was well formed it made little sense. Wernicke found that the area of the brain damaged in these patients was a small area in the left parietal cortex. Wernickes area is considered responsible for accessing words and decoding them for speech, whereas Brocas patients could understand language but could not transform them into understandable speech (Purves, 2008). Broca found speech accuracy impairment in expressive aphasia was due to the brains inability to produce language rather than the mouth failing to produce words. (Purves, 2008) Brocas patients included Leborgne who could only repeat the word tan and Lelong whose vocabulary consisted of only five words. Both patients were found to have lesions in the left frontal lobe an area later named as Brocas area. These patients led Broca to assume speech was region specific in the brain. Brocas area is presumed to be the syntax module and Wernickes area the semantics module (Purves, 2008). Wernicke and Brocas areas until recently appeared to fill some of Fodors (2000) conditions for modularity including domain specificity, autonomy and information encapsulation. The extent of this modularity is being examined in the light of more recent findings incorporating high tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Additional damaged areas are now identified as contributing to speech disruption. It was found that although Brocas area specific lesions can cause speech disruption, they are unlikely the source of complete and permanent speech impairment (Dronkers, Plaisant, Iba-Zizen, Cabanis E (2007). Additional evidence that Brocas area can be largely destroyed and language can remain intact was presented in a case study involving a computer engineer who had a tumor in Brocas region. The tumor and Brocas area were destroyed but he was able to function with minimal language problems and return to his work 3 months post surgery (Grodzinsky Santi 2002). Ongoing problems included an inability to create complex sentences, or relay reported speech. The problems were reported as working memory deficits and his recovery was explained by neural plasticity of the surrounding cortical area and a shift of some function to the right hemisphere (Grodzinsky Santi 2002). It seems unlikely that working memory could be the causation factor as the occupation he returned to is one highly dependent on working memory access. There is no report of auditory working memory in this individual differing from his visual working memory so it may be that Brocas area is not so easily dismissed (Grodzinsky Santi 2002). Figure 1 Broca and Wernicke areas NIH publication 97-4257, http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/aphasia.asp (accessed 17/04/2010) Evidence from children who learn to read after a TBI indicate those who relearn reading or recover language may not be as fluent as they were previously (Ewing-cobb, Barnes, 2002). The adverse effects of diffuse axonal injury extend to linguistic development in the areas of discourse processing, lexical development and reading. An analogy could be the functional capacity deficit experienced when one injures the writing hand and has to adjust to using the alternate one. It appears the older and more expert a child reader is at the time of injury the better chance they have of functional recovery in the area of language (Ewing-cobb, Barnes, 2002). The areas of working memory and speed of processing for mediating recovery were acknowledged by Ewing-cobb and Barnes as an area for further research. Functional MRI (FMRI) reveals more explicit localization in the way language is used than that proposed by Broca and Wernicke as evidenced by (Lyons, Mattarella-micke, Cieslak, et al, 2009) who maintain language activates domains and networks beyond the areas commonly ascribed to language processing and that the expanded process influences the language experience. Gonzà ¡lez, Barros-Loscertales, Pulvermà ¼ller, Meseguer, Sanjuà ¡n, Belloch, et al. (2006) found that neural areas which access word meaning can include related sensory systems. For instance accessing the meaning of the word vanilla may activate the olfaction and gustatory systems. Action language can activate motor regions used to complete these actions (Lyons et al, 2009). One example (figure 5) shows left dorsal premotor cortex activity. This area is considered central to selection of higher level action plans and contributes to increased comprehension of sport specific and signals increase in strength in accordance with levels of expert learning (Beilock et al., 2008). This is much like the trend cited by Posner, (2004) in regards to the fusiform area being more than face specific with expert learners. Hickok Poeppel, 2007; Vigneau, Beaucousin, Herve, Duffau, Crivello, 2006) found left dorsal premotor cortex activity is modulated by personal experience when category specific action related language is used (figure 5) Figure 2 Shows brain activation differences between expert and novice hockey players when category specific language is introduced indicating language is also accessed via motor pathways (Lyons, Mattarella-micke, Cieslak, et al, 2009) This may have profound implications for cognitive rehabilitation when Brocas or Wernickes area are damaged however it is important to note that in spite of the coordination of other networks these areas are still largely domain specific for functional capacity. Cognitive models can be supportive in logging where, and to what extent cognitive functioning is systematically impaired or spared. They can offer some insight as to whether the function in question is mainly modular or if it is distributed like a network (Cohen et al, 2000, McLeod, Plunkett, and Rolls, 1998: Parkin, 1993). Present cognitive models lack the processing power to model complex modules and the inclusion of multi sensory network architecture (|Naish, 2000) The modularity assumption is ascribed to philosopher Fodor who conceptualizes the brain as having modular characteristics and goes on to define modularity as domain specific, autonomous, innately specified, hardwired (neuronal path specific), informationally encapsulated, and not assembled (Coltheart,1999). Multiple areas of the brain are considered to have modular characteristics but do not meet all the criteria for Fodors model by (Cohen, Johnson Plunkett, 2000). Fodor insists he has never maintained the brain is modular but only that it contains modular characteristics which he goes on to describe. Fodor (1983) does not believe the mind is massively modular explainable by computational or excessively modular models, instead his emphasis is on the function of a mental state rather than its biology and he maintains modularity can be by degrees rather than on an all or nothing basis (Fodor,2000). Fodor (1983) gave his model (figure 2) three components. The transducers act like perception whose task is to convert precepts or stimuli into signals for neurons. The input systems he envisions interpret the information within mainly modular platforms. The central system operates as an executive system Fodor suggests basic aspects of vision, and language have modular characteristics and Fodor describes the central system as responsible for reasoning, problem solving analysis and making choices as network mediated (Fodor, 2000). The diagram below shows a limitation of this model in that it is feed forward only without feedback networks. Figure 3 Fodor, J.A. (1983) the Modularity of Mind, MIT Press/Bradford Books Scientists such as Posner, 2003; Gordon, Arns Paul, 2008 and Williams, Brown,, Palmer, Liddell, Kemp, Olivieri, et al. 2006) have credited neural network models as learning tools from which they have derived theoretical models of how the brain learns (Posner Carr, 1992) Two of these models will be briefly described to demonstrate that neural networks contribute to the understanding of the functional patterns of the brain. Rennie, (2001) a physicist, models the large-scale electrical activity of the brain and mapped the neuronal activity from temporal and localist assumptions. His model has contributed to the development of the integrate theory model where conceptual knowledge of cognition, biology, modelling, physics and even psychiatry are combined to propose how the brain integrates cognitive and emotional feedback(Gordon, Arns , Paul,2008 ). The integrate model could allow for cognitive function based on fight/flight mechanisms and internal/external motivators while still retaining the modular aspects. Although the integrate model was conceptualized by information accessed by observing Rennies cognitive modelling of the brain, contributions of genomics, neuropsychology, psychiatry, case studies, neuro-imaging and meta analysis are in use to further develop the model (Gordon, Arns , Paul,2008 ). This model explores age and temperament stimulus processing changes, and possibilities for personalized psycho-active drug formulation. Fight /flight response is represented in how emotion is processed and its affect on language response. In this model there is feedback and feed forward mechanisms at all levels (Williams, Brown, Palmer, Liddell, Kemp, Olivieri, et al. (2006). Figure 4 Integrate Model http://brainNET.net (accessed 11/04/2010 Posner employed cognitive modelling networks investigating patterns for attention which informed his theory on executive attention networks and assisted the design of attentional network training for children (Posner Rothbart, 2007). This computer training module used in his research demonstrates functional neural plasticity in that long-term gains in attention, language skills, working memory, visual perception and executive functioning are observed (Thorell, Lindqvist, Nutley, Bohlin, Klingberg, T. 2009). The advantages extend to near and far transfer tasks such as language acquisition, working memory and cognitive load capacity. Posner describes the brain as a network but does not deny domain specificity plays a role in identifying localization. His emphasis is on mental states, a position similar to Fodor, (Posner Rothbart, 2005). Posner refers findings which favour localized mental operations as an opportunity to explore neural plasticity and uses elements of face processing to support his position. Posner references the common activation that occurs in the fusiform area when experts think about a domain of expertise rather than an exclusive face recognition task. He maintains that if we see localizations in the form of mental operations it would be natural for to share operations in common (Posner, 2004). In fact (Corbetta Shulman, 2002) show localization of separate mental operations within the parietal lobe which merge with a larger network to align attention to specific targets (McCandliss, Cohen, Dehaene, 2003) Posner and Tang (2009) have recently explored attention state models and how they influe nce learning and communication. See a diagram of Posners conceptual model below: Posner model of localization of aspects of executive attention states www.dana.org/NEWS/cerebrum/detail.aspx?id=23206 accessed (14/04/2010) The relationship between DDs and the modularity of cognitive processes in conjunction with the role CMs play is informed by ongoing research. Ellis and Young (1988) indicate unearthing a double dissociation, is only a starting point as processes and the aspects they mediate in common need careful identification. Crowder (1972) comments investigating the necessity of a two process theory may be more informative than the properties of individual processes (Plaut, 2003). DDs and CMs may oversimplify functional processes leading to distorted perceptions of neuroanatomical systems. Dividing executive function and episodic memory may undermine mutual network connections to temporal lobe systems, (Barr, Goldberg, 2003) DDs are useful for showing what happens when functional impairment occurs in one area of the brain leaving another area intact, while in other individuals the opposite functional pattern emerges (Parkin, 1997). The correlations can act as a reference in a similar way to a labelled fuse box which points the way to the specific appliance that caused an overload malfunction in the system. Fuses can be individually tested for function and the electrical impairment can be isolated for further review. CM simulates to some extent how patterns can develop in response to stimuli and injury. CMs work on an input in/out basis and as a result are unable to account for the complexities of phenotype variations influencing cognition (Naish, 2000). The patterns themselves are more concrete than abstract concepts and this may lead to insights about how specific cognitive processes work. FMRI, TMS, Galvanic skin response, single cell electrical recording, Magneto-encephalography, Quantitative encephalography, Positive electron tomography, Single photon emission computed tomography methods all allow neuro-anatomical functional observations with living individuals/animals. This informs understanding about modularity and the interaction of adjacent structures. It is important to note that each technology has limitations, MRI with temporal resolution, MEG and QEEG with spatial resolutions. With TMS artificial lesions can be created without harm to living participants by means of magnetic stimulation however, this process is time limited and can produce artefacts. These methods add to the foundation laid by early cognitive neuroscience and in some cases lead to confirmation or disputes about the original findings (Carlson, 2007). Bowers (2009, 2010) for instance notes single cell recordings may be consistent with localist coding rather than a distributed model based on the fact that neurons in the hippocampus and certain areas of the cortex may selectively respond to one stimulus out of many. His assumption is that because the IA word identification model uses single units to code for specific units it is not distributed. Parallel Distributed Processing networks (PDP)s rely on graded constraints and interactivity to determine actions that are consistent with the systems knowledge as determined by connection weights between units. However, (Plaut and McClelland, 2010) claim PDP neural network could learn localist grandmother cells in training specific learning conditions. The CMs are built from mathematical formulas using incomplete knowledge, they can be useful for showing patterns however it is illogical to expect them to uphold something they were only created to simulate and this thinking leads to unintentional error in interpretation. Statistically constructed mathematical computer models are built by the National Institute of Highway Safety to assess levels of diffuse axonal brain injury using squid axons (IIHS, 2007). These axons are electrical synaptic models rather than the chemical synaptic structure commonly found in human brains. Chemical synapses are less robust and more vulnerable to secondary cell death than the electrical synaptic structure (Roberts, 2005). Myelination damage cannot be measured by squid axon models. The resulting inaccuracies prejudice compensation claims for diffuse axonal injury survivors who often sustain language and vision impairments as the squid axon model can survive higher impact without brain damage. (Price, 2007) Cohen reports being disturbed by the ad hoc tinkering of connectionists trying to make the model work. Naish retorts that if connectionists tinker it is only to appear to model what neuro-physiologists claim to have found. He notes the complexity of the brain and notes this leave cases open for contamination by extraneous variables (Naish, 2009). Parkin (1997) states DDs may contain co-morbidities and research will reflect this. Literature tends to report simple conditions because they are easier to understand (Naish, 2009). Rebuttals can include neuro-psychologists calling connectionists tinkerers and connectionists accusing neuro-psychologists of cherry picking cases. This may reflect frustrations of research demands in a rapidly evolving field. Hinton reports CMs require labelled training data and most data learning relevant data is not constrained by labels. The signals CMs attempt to replicate require different equations than biological neural signals creating comparative discrepancies (Hinton, 2010). The brain processes data for 10^14 labels @ 10^9 per second, well beyond what computers presen